Research Literature Review Breast Cancer in USA Essay Example for Free

Research Literature Review Breast Cancer in USA Essay Introduction Breast cancer continues to be an important focus of attention for medical professionals, policy-makers and general public in the US. The high incidence of the disease and its devastating, in many cases, fatal, outcomes rivet the attention of the professional public. Studies identified for this literature review are for the most part practically oriented, in the sense that they deal with topics that are of primary importance in detecting, treating, and preventing breast cancer. Thus, two sources deal with the programs aimed at women education in the US concerning breast cancer, and two others cover the research into environmental causes of breast cancer. The problem of treatment options for breast cancer is also considered. Education Programs In the US where the population is extremely diverse, creation of special education programs targeting various population groups in accordance with their status is of special importance. Armando Valdez, Kakoli Banerjee, Lynn Ackerson, and Maria Fernandez in their article â€Å"Multimedia breast cancer education intervention for low-income Latinas† outline a special program aimed at the segment of women including Latino women. The problem with detection and early treatment of cancer among Latino women is connected to the fact that Latina women’s screening rate is considerably lower the required government standards and the rate for other ethnic groups. The researchers arrive at the conclusion that, given the availability of subsidized mammograms for poor Latina women, the main deterrent for improvement in the screening rate is lack of knowledge about cancer risks and treatment options. Complicated level of education materials prepared for the target group by the American Cancer Society was identified as an important factor blocking the access of Latina women to adequate information as materials presented often required a superior level of reading skills and the materials were not prepared in Spanish. The paper reports â€Å"the results of a multimedia breast cancer education intervention, tailored to the needs of low-education, low-income Latinas, and attempt to document specific changes in womens knowledge, attitudes and intentions toward mammography screening† (Valdez et al., 2002). Using the Breast Cancer Multimedia Kiosk including instructional videos exposing the target group to the dangers of breast cancer, the authors were able to conclude that interactive multimedia technologies are an effective tool in raising awareness of cancer risks among low-income women. Although the women had some prior knowledge of cancer (â€Å"the majority of baseline study participants (over 80%) knew age and family history as risk factors†), the post-exposure assessment revealed a significant increase in knowledge after the program. Krystal Ngoc-Thy Luong and Jenny K. Yi in â€Å"Apartment-Based Breast Cancer Education Program for Low Income Vietnamese American Women† evaluate a similar program targeting a different ethnic group. As in the case with Latina women, breast cancer is the leading cause of death in this subgroup. Although Asian/Pacific Islander American, or APIA, women have a lower incidence rate of breast cancer (102.0 per 100,000 versus 140.8 per 100,000 for White American women), exposure to Western lifestyle tends to push these rates up. In addition, APIA women tend to be younger when diagnosed with breast cancer than other categories. The study aimed â€Å"to develop, implement, and evaluate the effect of an apartment-based breast cancer educational program for the hard to reach low income Vietnamese women† (Luong, Yi, 2005). The program was designed to be based on apartment visits as it provided a convenient way to reach women, covering neighbourhoods with high concentration of Vietnamese families in Houston. The intervention was carried out by two educators who delivered 20 educational sessions over the period of 3 months that provided the Vietnamese women with information concerning screening, recommendations and referrals to screening. Women were supplied with promotional materials including printed educational information and videos. Measurement of the knowledge levels through telephone surveys concerning breast cancer issues demonstrated that they were â€Å"significantly higher in the intervention group after receiving education about breast cancer when compared to women in the control group† (Luong, Yi, 2005). The researchers drew the conclusion that an apartment-based program has many advantages as compared to other ones because it addresses women in comfortable home settings, giving them a chance to relax and open up more to the conversation with the educator. Environmental Hazards and Breast Cancer Another important direction of research concerns the impact of pollutants and other environmental factors on incidence of breast cancer in women. Thus, Peggy Reynolds, Susan E. Hurley, Robert B. Gunier, Sauda Yerabati, Thu Quach, and Andrew Hertz in â€Å"Residential Proximity to Agricultural Pesticide Use and Incidence of Breast Cancer in California, 1988-1997† evaluate the connection between the facts that California is the most important agricultural state and also demonstrates the highest breast cancer rates in the US. The purpose of the study was formulated as desire to find out â€Å"whether California breast cancer rates were elevated in areas with recent high agricultural pesticide use† (Reynolds et al., 2005). The research was based on the assessment of 176,302 invasive breast cancer cases including â€Å"70,968,598 person-years of observation† (Reynolds et al., 2005). Using Poisson regression analyses, the authors were not able to find a consistent link between living close to the areas of pesticide distribution and having breast cancer. The upshot of the study was that breast cancer was hardly driven by pesticide use, but was more closely related to various social factors such as socioeconomic status. Julia Green Brody and Ruthann A. Rudel in â€Å"Environmental pollutants and breast cancer† address a wider ranger of substances that can lead to breast tumors. The proliferation of breast cancer in North America has caused the need to look for more sources of this disease, examining a wider range of factors. The study covers â€Å"chemicals that may be breast carcinogens, promote growth of breast cells and hormonally sensitive tumors, or affect mammary gland development and susceptibility† (Brody, Rudel, 2003). The researchers identify already known breast cancer risk factors including reproductive factors, exposure to pharmaceutical hormones, diet, ionizing radiation, socioeconomic status and posited the need to identify more factors. Thus, the scholars point to the need to further investigate the risk associated with occupational hazards including exposure â€Å"to the mammary carcinogens benzene, PAHs, and certain organic solvents† (Brody, Rudel, 2003). For instance, speaking of organic solvents, one study identified a connection between breast cancer rates in Danish women and their exposure to these substances in the workplace. The research, after examining 7,802 women with cancer diagnosis, registered a 20-66% rise in breast cancer risk for women who have been employed in occupations that envisaged active exposure to organic solvents. Other studies demonstrated increased risk of breast cancer development for women employed in the chemical industry, textile manufacturing, or nuclear power plants. The authors conclude by saying that more research is needed in the area, but the literature available so far clearly indicates that the link exists between cancer rates and environmental factors. Treatment Options Finally, another issue which has been identified to inspire researchers is the availability of treatment options for cancer and choice between various alternatives. Kathleen B. Donaghy in â€Å"Fostering Sound Medical Treatment Decision Making: A Focusing on Treatment Choices for Breast Cancer† explores this problem. Invoking the decision-making theory, the author evaluates the potential for adequate decision-making in patients struck with this shocking diagnosis. Donaghy (2003) believes that hasty decisions concerning treatment options made on insufficient information are often regretted by the patient later on. As common deterrents that prevent responsible decision-making she identifies five key points: 1.) cognitive overload 2.) failure to fully comprehend treatment options 3.) inability or refusal to process information in the presence of a denial defense 4.) hurried presentation of information by the physician 5.) self-imposed time constraints to get decisions made. (Donaghy, 2003) The article identifies the key strategies that can be employed by the physician to help the patient in the choice, such as providing maximal possible information to guide the patient’s decisions, improving communication, framing information in an appropriate format, obtaining informed consent etc. Using the decision theory to define decision-making as a choice between status quo and other alternatives shed light on patient values that can be involved in decisions regarding breast surgery. Conclusion The pervasiveness of breast cancer in the US makes research related to the issue highly topical. Examination of causes including environmental factors can help craft governmental policies that will prevent the spread of the deadly disease. On the other hand, developing policies aimed at early detection and effective treatment can be instrumental in curbing the death rate from breast cancer. In this light, creation of programs specifically tailored to the needs of individual groups can be an effective solution. Finally, research oriented toward helping the patient make the best decision concerning treatment options will be an important prerequisite of effective treatment programs. References Ackerson, L., Banerjee, K., Fernandez, M., Valdez, A. (2002). A Multimedia Breast Cancer Education Intervention for Low-Income Latinas. Journal of Community Health 27(1), 33+. Retrieved April 14, 2006, from http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=od=5000714747 Brody, J.G., Rudel, R.A. (2003). Environmental Pollutants and Breast Cancer. Environmental Health Perspectives 111(8), 1007+. http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=od=5002005585 Donaghy, K.B. (2003). Fostering Sound Medical Treatment Decision Making: A Focusing on Treatment Choices for Breast Cancer. Annals of the American Psychotherapy Association 6(4), 6+. Retrieved April 14, 2006, from http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=od=5002578878 Gunier, G.M., Hertz, A., Hurley, S.E., Quach, T., Reynolds, P., et al. (2005). Residential Proximity to Agricultural Pesticide Use and Incidence of Breast Cancer in California, 1988-1997. Environmental Health Perspectives 113(8), 993+. Retrieved April 14, 2006, from http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=od=5010885312 Ngoc-Thy Luong, K., Yi, J.K. (2005). Apartment-Based Breast Cancer Education Program for Low Income Vietnamese American Women. Journal of Community Health 30(5), 2005, 345+. Retrieved April 14, 2006, from http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=od=5011756419

Barleria Prionitis Linn

Barleria Prionitis Linn

Strategies for Nation Building

Strategies for Nation Building CHAPTER THREE INTRODUCTION 2.1 Defining nation The term nation is hard to define. Therefore various scholars have come up with different definitions of the term nation. Karlsson (2009) sees a nation as a birthmark. A nation can be described as an idea searching for a reality which a minority often violently forced upon a majority with standardization as a goal and with an iron glove as an instrument to eradicate previous diversity. Nations are constructed and invented. Nation is defined as mobilizing ideology in force that is used to concientise the masses against any kind of oppression or resistance that might be seen as opposing feature. The order of precedence of the factors that characterize a nation has always been a subject to discussion ranging from mutual traditions and collective political awareness, common antecedents, affiliation to a tribe or people, joint territory, customs and language, culture and religion. The inhabitants of a country are a nation despite their different languages and cultures. Karl Proper, the philosopher, stated at the Second World War that â€Å"it has been said that a race is a collection of people who are united by their origin but by a common misconception about their antecedents†. Karlsson compares this to a nation as he states that a nation is a collection of people united by a common misconception about their history. Thus, nations are not eternally defined entities, but they are in fact created. Nationalism invents nations where they do not exist Anderson (1990), Smith (1990) and Ndlovu-Gatsheni (2007) are of the view that a nation is an imagined community where members share the same history and envision reality in the same way. It is synonymous with self determination for those who have the good fortune to live in a society which has its own history, language, culture and religion but it can also be xenophobic, intolerant, aggressive, hegemonic and authotarian, lacking the will and ability to allow others what the nation claims for. Renan (1882) was concerned in that nation affinity was not a question of race, religion place of birth, but instead was a matter of daily referendum. A nation is based on all individuals having something in common. A nation is a spiritual principle with its origins in the deep complexity of history, an intellectual family not only by sacrifices one has made and those that one is disposed to make again. It supposes a past; it renews itself particularly in the present by a tangible deed, the approval, the desire, clearly expressed to continue the daily life. The existence of a nation is a referendum. Nationalism can be defined as the process of identity making can be best understood in the words of Reicher and Hopkins. This understanding of nationalism is further amplified by a British Labor politician who likened nationalism to electricity that can be used for good and bad purposes. He continued that it can electrocute someone in the electric chair or it can heat and light the world adding that: â€Å"Nationalism can be exhilarating revolutionary force for progress but we only have to open our newspapers today to areas where nationalism becomes in the wrong hands. A primeval force of darkness and reaction†¦ I can say originally, we ought to utilize the potential revolutionary force of nationalism by our readership to ensure that the dark side does not emerge† Nationalism can be manipulated to serve one interests. Hence this nationalism can be hegemonies as the elites can influence nationalism for their own good and suppress the lower class in the process. 2.1 Defining nation building Nation building is a highly complex term that means different things to different people. Nation building is evolutionary as it takes time and is a social process that cannot be achieved from outside. The notion of nation is used in a different way. It can be used not to challenge the existing territorial and political order, but to create a sense of national unity for a given polity. This sort of work is often called nation b building. Zolberg (1967:461) notes that nation building takes predominance over all tasks including economic development. This implies that nation building involves the political development, social development and economical development in a nation. In the African context, Young (2004) noted how â€Å"innumerable rituals of state drummed the national idea into the public consciousness: national holidays, national anthems, and daily flag raising ceremonies at all administrative headquarters. In a dozen banal ways, the nation was subliminally communicated through its ubiquitous flag, its currency, its postage stamps, its identity cards.† Soon after independence African states created their national holidays, national anthems, changed their country names from colonial names and had their own currency. In way this helped to build nation as everything had to be nationalized to suit the African society. Nation building is whereby a society with diverse origins, cultures, histories, languages and religion come together within the boundaries of a sovereign state with a unified constitutional and legal dispensation, a national public education system an integrated national economy, shared symbols and values, as equals, to work towards eradicating the divisions and injustices of the past, to foster unity and promote a country wide consciousness of proudly Africans promoted to the country and open to the continent and the world. Nation building by www.usip.org is not just about the physical construction service provision or material wealth. It is also about using the country’s shared customs to prevent further escalation of conflict as well as upholding values, customs, traditional practices that can be enshrined in national identity. In other words, a nation is not the sum of material possessions. Rather people are the most important asserts that, they are the nation and how each citizen behaves becomes the reflection of nation’s characters. The best way for the nation to hold itself to its own standards is to teach the youngest citizens to remind everyone of whom they are as people. The following section will be looking at the processes of nation building with relation to print media. 3.2 Process of nation building 3.2.1 Sports Sport is an aspect of nation building. Riordan stresses that it is overt that sport in many societies is a serious business with serious functions to perform. It is accordingly, state controlled, encouraged and shaped by specific Unitarian and ideological designs. It is by no means a matter of fun and games. Riordan further points out that in Africa, Asia and Latin America, sports development is closely associated with hygiene, health, defence, patriotism, integration, productivity, international recognition, even cultural, identity and nation building. Sport therefore has a role of being an agent of social change with the state as the pilot. During the twentieth century nearly sixty new states have been established. Houlihan states that many of these new states were faced with the acute problem of establishing a sense of national identity. For former colonies it meant that they were the enemies of the newly independent nations. Maguire argues sport could form one of the significant arenas by which nations become more real. Particular sports came to symbolize the nation. The close bind of sport with national identification arenas by which nations become more real. Particular sports come to symbolize the nation. Sport can forge and reinforce community or national identities. It can foster also unity among societies. In particular attention to Zimbabwe, every year during the independence celebrations there is the uhuru cup whereby local soccer teams contest for the cup. Soccer is used to foster unity among a nation. In celebrating Independence Day, sports are used for entertainment and also fostering unity. With the regard to the use of sports for nation building, Houlihan points out that modern state want not only national unity and distinctiveness but also an international stage on which to project that identity utilizing an increasing common array of cultural symbols to demonstrate their individuality. In cases like Olympics when one individual is victorious in any of the games, the national anthem is sung and the flag is raised. Success in sports events and particularly by the hosting of sports events provides a benign and uncritical backdrop of the parade of national achievement (Dauncey and Hare 1993). They go on to point that the victory of France in the 1998, football World Cup save a great opportunity to demonstrate public services, values, successful French integration and traditional French values in the international arena.

Internationalization Of Accounting Standards For Consolidation - Japan :: essays research papers fc

Internationalization of Accounting Standards for Consolidation - Japan: A Case Study The purpose of this paper will be to examine problems with internationalization of accounting standards for consolidations on methods from an international perspective - specifically, in the US and Japan. This is an especially timely topic as standardization of financial markets is a prerequisite to international free trade. Given the trends toward greater globalization, the motivations of companies for seeking a uniform accounting system are strong. If companies have to prepare their accounts according to several different sets of rules, in order to communicate with investors in the various capital markets in which they operate or for other national purposes, they incur a considerable cost penalty and feel that money is wasted. This significantly limits global opportunities for multinational businesses. Thus, it is important to understand what the differences are between accounting standards, why they exist, and what problems they pose. It is worth noting that no one nation has a set of accounting rules which appears to have such clear merits that they deserve adoption by the whole world. No one country can claim to have a uniquely correct set of rules. The United States has the longest history of standard setting. It has the largest standard setting organization which is characterized by high standards of professionalism. But, even the rules of the United States exhibit compromises between different interests of a kind which could have reasonably been decided otherwise. Furthermore, no unanimity exists among U.S. accountants about the merits of the precise details of the compromises that have been struck. For example, the recent discussion memorandum on consolidation outlines three different methods which are GAAP in the US (Beckman, 1995). No one nation has a clear right, on the basis of existing achievements, to be regarded as predominant in accounting. A great deal more work is needed by accountants from different countries before we can reach the point of having a well founded basis for uniformity. People who study differences among systems of accounting rules are inclined to group countries into two categories. On the one hand, there are countries where business finance is provided more by loans than by equity capital, where accounting rules are dominated by taxation considerations and where legal systems customarily incorporate codes with detailed rules for matters such as accounting. The effect of taxation systems can be particularly pervasive. Often, the taxation system effectively offers tax breaks for businesses by allowing generous measurement of expenses and modest measurement of revenues on condition that these measurements are used for general reporting purposes. Companies have strong incentives to take advantage of these taxation concessions as real cash

Shakespeares Othello - Iago Essay -- Othello essays

Othello’s Iago  Ã‚        Ã‚  Ã‚   We find in William Shakespeare’s tragic play Othello an example of personified evil. He is the general’s ancient, Iago, and he wreaks havoc and destruction on all those under his influence.    Louis B. Wright and Virginia A. LaMar in â€Å"The Engaging Qualities of Othello† comment on how the character of Iago is the wholly expected type of villain for an Elizabethan audience:      Iago at once captures the attention of the spectator. He is the personification of the villain that Elizabethans had come to expect from Italian short stories and from Machiavellian commentary. Villains of this type, as well as those of domestic origin, had long been popular on the stage. From the days of the mystery and morality plays, the characters personifying evil invariably had gripped the attention of audiences, for iniquity always stirs more popular excitement than virtue. (127)    First of all, Iago’s very words paint him for what he is. Robert Di Yanni in â€Å"Character Revealed Through Dialogue† states that the evil antagonist reveals his character quite plainly through his speech:    Iago’s language reveals his coarseness; he crudely reduces sexual love to animal copulation. It also shows his ability to make things happen: he has infuriated Brabantio. The remainder of the scene shows the consequences of his speech, its power to inspire action. Iago is thus revealed as both an instigator and a man of crude sensibilities. (123)    David Bevington in William Shakespeare: Four Tragedies enlightens us on the ancient:    Iago’s machinations yield him both â€Å"sport† and â€Å"profit† (1.3.387); that is, he enjoys his evildoing, although he is also driven by a motive. This Vice-like behavior inh... ...gton, David, ed. William Shakespeare: Four Tragedies. New York: Bantam Books, 1980.    Coles, Blanche. Shakespeare’s Four Giants. Rindge, New Hampshire: Richard Smith Publisher, 1957.    Di Yanni, Robert. â€Å"Character Revealed Through Dialogue.† Readings on The Tragedies. Ed. Clarice Swisher. San Diego: Greenhaven Press, 1996. Reprint from Literature. N. p.: Random House, 1986.    Shakespeare, William. Othello. In The Electric Shakespeare. Princeton University. 1996. http://www.eiu.edu/~multilit/studyabroad/othello/othello_all.html No line nos.    Wright, Louis B. and Virginia A. LaMar. â€Å"The Engaging Qualities of Othello.† Readings on The Tragedies. Ed. Clarice Swisher. San Diego: Greenhaven Press, 1996. Reprint from Introduction to The Tragedy of Othello, the Moor of Venice by William Shakespeare. N. p.: Simon and Schuster, Inc., 1957.   

Managing technological change

Managing technological change effectively in organizations, and even across entire industries, has always been a challenge for management, IT practitioners, and business development specialists. Technological change within companies and enterprises is not primarily a technology issue nor is it an area of interested limited to IT managers and specialists alone. Technological change should be a primary concern for business managers. The new generations of IT advancements can be applied to support advanced information management which in turns can enable business transformation within an organization.Managing automation-focused projects has become an outdated approach. Without a system on managing technological change effectively, the end results for organizations in applying new technologies usually result in unexpectedly high failure rates (BusinessWeek Online, 2006). A solution for business and IT managers is to make use of the Benefits Realization method. All organizations actually have a Benefits Realization process whether they are aware of it or not.For most companies, it is most likely not a formal process, and as such, the organization does not only know about it, but it also does not understand it. When an organization is not aware of the Benefits Realization in place, then it tends to be a passive process, not a managed one. What happens of course is that the process does not work very well. However, when the Benefits Realization process is designed and engineered systematically, it can actually lead to a tremendous improvement in the organization’s performance (BusinessWeek Online, 2006).In general, the Benefits Realization method provides for a new basis for using IT to deliver business results more consistently, predictably, and effectively. The approach makes use of two interconnected elements: mindsets on IT and on management methods. Taken these two fields together, Benefits Realization seeks to focus on integrating technology into an organ ization’s business system. It posits that the application of IT alone, regardless of how technically powerful, cannot deliver effective and successful business results without considering and combining IT with business methods (BusinessWeek Online, 2006).In other words, for an effective Benefits Realization process, the organization must seek to combine IT and management capabilities, and provide for a system that monitors the entire process from start to finish. F. Research Issue The ideal Benefits Realization design should start from the launch of the project, go beyond deliver, and actually measure the success and process improvement of the new design, process, software, or whatever technology was introduced to the organization.The problem is that not all companies have systems in place to really measure process improvement for Benefits Realization after completion of the project. This may happen when the organization is not aware that it has a Benefits Realization process in place to begin with, or when the organization’s Benefits Realization design simply does not have the tools to measure the end results of the process. G. Objectives of the Study The research study has the following objectives: ? To identify the reasons why the introduction of technology in benefits realization has often failed to bring about real change and benefits to the company.? To discuss how failure of most benefits realization programs are due to the lack of measurement tools in determining the benefits from its investments. ? To provide recommendations and solutions on how to establish effective benefits realization within an organization. H. Definition of Terms The following key terms, which will be used recurrently throughout the study, are defined as follows: ? Benefits realization – the discipline of ensuring that business initiatives deliver expected benefits (Aron, Tucker & Hunter, 2005).It is â€Å"an integrated set of processes, techniques, tools, d ocumentation standards and governance framework that cane be used to get the most value from technology investments† (Federal Aviation Administration, 1999, p. 1-2). ? Business benefit – a real source of value to the business, such as increased revenues, improved customer retention, lower costs, or quicker time-to-market (Aron, Tucker & Hunter, 2005). ? IT-intensive project/initiative – a business project with a significant IT component. It is increasingly common to consider all projects business projects.Projects involving significant IT activities and/or costs represent an opportunity for the Chief Operating Officer (CIO) and Information System (IS) organization to contribute strongly to benefits realization (Aron, Tucker & Hunter, 2005). I. Significance of the Study The study is significant since it will analyse the reasons why benefits realization programs fail in companies. It will discuss the strengths and weaknesses of benefits realization approaches used by companies. The recommendations that the study will provide can serve as useful tools for organization in setting up effective benefits realization programs.

English Notes Agry God

Jonathon Edwards was quite known for his most famous sermon â€Å"from the sinners in the hands of an angry God. † He often called people sinners and scared them in to believing that they were all going to hell. Edwards uses many rhetorical devices in his sermon, such as: figurative language; fear,parallel structure, and lastly repetition. J. Edwards used a lot of figurative language in his sermon. It seems like in every other sentence there is either a simile or a metaphor or at least something with imagery. Such as † there is a dreadful Pit of the glowing flames of the wrath of God. Or there is â€Å"the wrath of God is like great waters that are dammed for the present. † I think Edwards was using the figurative language not only to make people think but to also keep them interested , and to keep them listening to him. An example of imagery that he said in his sermon would be â€Å"The God that holds you over the pit of hell, mush as one who holds a spider, or some loathsome insect over the fire. † Jonathon had a way with figurative language. Edwards caused a lot of people to fear him, and also what he was talking about. Most people started to believe what Edwards was saying in his sermon. This is an example of people believing what they hear. When Edwards made the people fear him, he got more popular, not really the good type of popular either . Once the people started to fear him, they also started to believe what he was saying. Which scared them into listening more. Most of the people did what ever to un-become a sinner. Jonathon used a lot of parallel structure and repetition in his sermon. He seemed to have wrote a lot of the same things over just differently. Edwards used the repetition of certain words, many times such as: hell, God, fire, sinners. Some people may think that his entire sermon was just about those four words. An example of parallel structure is † to see many others feasting , while you are pining and perishing! † These were to make the people think while they were listening. In result of the figurative language, the fear he caused, and the parallel structure and repetition all caused the people to listen to what he had to say . Even though he was calling them all sinners. These people believed in what Jonathon Edwards ha to say, mainly because they were scared. The words he used in this sermon helped make these people listen/ believe .